Outline

Introduction (Figure 16.1)

Gluconeogenesis

> Physiological Need for Glucose Synthesis in Animals (Figure 16.2)

> Enzymatic Relationship of Gluconeogenesis to Glycolysis (Figure 16.3)

> > Step 1: Conversion of Pyruvate to Phosphoenolpyruvate (Reaction #1, p. 557, Figure 15.11b, #2, #3)

> > Step 2: Conversion of Fructose-1,6-bisphosphate to Fructose-6-phosphate (Reaction #1, p. 558)

> > Step 3: Conversion of Glucose-6-phosphate to Glucose (Reaction #2, p. 558)

> Stoichiometry and Energy Balance of Gluconeogenesis (Reaction #3, p. 558, Table 16.1)

> Substrates for Gluconeogenesis (Figure 16.4)

> > Lactate (Figure 16.5)

> > Amino Acids

> > Glycerol (Figure 16.4)

> > Propionate (Reaction #1, p. 561)

> Ethanol Metabolism and Gluconeogenesis (Reaction #1, p. 562)

> Roles of Extrahepatic Phosphoenolpyruvate Carboxykinase

Regulation of Gluconeogenesis

> Reciprocal Regulation of Glycolysis and Gluconeogenesis (Figure 16.6)

> Fructose-2,6-bisphosphate and the Control of Gluconeogenesis (Figure 16.7)

Glycogen Biosynthesis

> Glycogen Synthase and the Branching Process

> > Biosynthesis of UDP-Glucose (Figure 16.8, 13.13b)

> > The Glycogen Synthase Reaction (Figure 16.9)

> > Formation of Branches (Figure 16.10)

> Reciprocal Regulation of Glycogen Biosynthesis and Mobilization (13.18, Figure 16.11)

> > Phosphorylation of Glyogen Synthase

> > Cyclic AMP and Glycogen Synthase Regulation (Figure 16.11)

> > A Closer Look at Glycogen Synthase Regulation: Dephosphorylation of the D Form (Figure 16.12)

> Functions of Glycogen Stores in Muscle and Liver

> Congenital Defects of Glycogen Metabolism in Humans (Table 16.2)

Biosynthesis of Other Polysaccharides (Reaction #1, p. 573, #2)

Biosynthesis of Amino Sugars (Reaction #3, p. 573, Figure 16.13, Figure 16.14, 13.14, Item #1, p. 574, #2, #3, #4)

Biosynthesis of Glycoconjugates

> O-Linked Oligosaccharides: Blood Group Antigens (Item #1, p. 575, Figure 16.15)

> N-Linked Oligosaccharides: Glycoproteins (Figure 16.16, Item #1, p. 577, #2)

> > Synthesis of the Lipid-Linked Intermediate (Figure 16.17)

> > Processing of the Oligosaccharides (Figure 16.18)

> > Processing and Intracellular Protein Traffic

> Microbial Cell Wall Polysaccharides: Peptidoglycan (Figure 9.26)

> > Synthesis of N-Acetylmuramylpeptide (Item #1, p. 580, Figure 16.19, Figure 16.21)

> > Formation of the Peptidoglycan Chain (Item #1, p. 582, Figure 16.20)

> > Cross-Linking of Peptidoglycan Strands (Figure 16.21)

> Microbial Cell Wall Polysaccharides: O Antigens (Figure 16.22)